Table 1 Applications of nanoparticles in pesticide hazard mitigation and sustainable agriculture

Silver (Ag)

- Exhibits antimicrobial properties against plant pathogens

- Enhances pesticide efficacy, potentially reducing the required dosage

- Reduces environmental contamination

- Supports integrated pest management

[39,40,41,42]

Zinc Oxide (ZnO)

- Shows antifungal and antibacterial properties

- Potential for slow release of pesticides

- Promotes plant growth

- Enhances stress tolerance in crops

[43,44,45,46,47]

Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂)

- Photocatalytic degradation of pesticide residues

- Antibacterial properties

- Enhances crop resistance to pathogens

- Potential to improve nutrient uptake

[48,49,50,51,52]

Copper Oxide (CuO)

- Strong antibacterial and antifungal properties

- Potential for controlled pesticide release

- May enhance plant disease resistance

- Can act as a micronutrient source

[53,54,55]

Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₃)

- Antifungal properties

- Potential for targeted pesticide delivery

- May improve plant stress tolerance

- Can act as an iron source for plants

[56, 57]

Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

- Exhibits antibacterial properties

- Potential for pesticide encapsulation

- May enhance plant growth

- Can serve as a magnesium source

[58, 59]