Fig. 5

Evaluation of oxidative stress and inflammation signaling pathways. A Violin plots comparing the scores of the response to reactive oxygen species and TNF signaling pathway between the Con and COPD groups using the ssGSEA algorithm. B Correlation of response to reactive oxygen species scores with immune cell infiltration. C Correlation of TNF signaling pathway scores with immune cell infiltration. The color gradient in the heatmaps represents the Z-scores of immune cell infiltration, with red indicating higher and blue indicating lower levels. The correlation coefficient (R) values and significance levels are denoted alongside each cell type. Statistical significance is indicated as follows: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001